History Story: Sid Harth
Alexander the Great
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This article is about the ancient king of Macedon. For other uses, see
Alexander the Great (disambiguation).
Alexander the Great
Basileus of Macedon
Alexander fighting the Persian king Darius III. From Alexander Mosaic,
from Pompeii, Naples, Naples National Archaeological Museum
Reign 336–323 BC
Full name Alexander III of Macedon
Greek Μέγας Ἀλέξανδροςiv[›] (Mégas Aléxandros)
Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Μέγας (Aléxandros o Mégas)
Titles Hegemon of the Hellenic League, Shahanshah of Persia, Pharaoh
of Egypt and Lord of Asia
Born 20 or 21 July 356 BC
Birthplace Pella, Macedon
Died 10 or 11 June 323 BC (aged 32)
Place of death Babylon
Predecessor Philip II of Macedon
Successor Alexander IV of Macedon
Philip III of Macedon
Wives Roxana of Bactria
Stateira of Persia
Offspring Alexander IV of Macedon
Dynasty Argead dynasty
Father Philip II of Macedon
Mother Olympias of Epirus
Alexander III of Macedon (356–323 BC), popularly known as Alexander
the Great (Greek: Μέγας Ἀλέξανδρος, Mégas Aléxandros), was a Greeki[›]
king (basileus) of Macedon. He is the most celebrated member of the
Argead Dynasty and created one of the largest empires in ancient
history. Born in Pella in 356 BC, Alexander received a classical Greek
education under the tutorship of famed philosopher Aristotle,
succeeded his father Philip II of Macedon to the throne in 336 BC
after the King was assassinated, and died thirteen years later at the
age of 32. Although both Alexander's reign and empire were short-
lived, the cultural impact of his conquests lasted for centuries.
Alexander was known to be undefeated in battle and is considered one
of the most successful commanders of all time.[1] He is one of the
most famous figures of antiquity, and is remembered for his tactical
ability, his conquests, and for spreading Greek culture into the East
(marking the beginning of Hellenistic civilization).
Philip had brought most of the city-states of mainland Greece under
Macedonian hegemony, using both military and diplomatic means. Upon
Philip's death, Alexander inherited a strong kingdom and an
experienced army. He succeeded in being awarded the generalship of
Greece and, with his authority firmly established, launched the
military plans for expansion left by his father. He invaded Persian-
ruled Asia Minor, and began a series of campaigns lasting ten years.
Alexander repeatedly defeated the Persians in battle; marched through
Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, and Bactria; and in the process he
overthrew the Persian king Darius III and conquered the entirety of
the Persian Empire.ii[›] Following his desire to reach the "ends of
the world and the Great Outer Sea", he invaded India, but was
eventually forced to turn back by the near-mutiny of his troops, who
were tired of war.
Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC, before realizing a series of
planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of Arabia. In
the years following Alexander's death, a series of civil wars tore his
empire apart, which resulted in the formation of a number of states
ruled by Macedonian aristocracy (the Diadochi). Remarkable though his
conquests were, Alexander's lasting legacy was not his reign, but the
cultural diffusion his conquests engendered. Alexander's importation
of Greek colonists and culture to the East resulted in a new
Hellenistic culture, aspects of which were still evident in the
traditions of the Byzantine Empire until the mid-15th century.
Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mold of
Achilles, and features prominently in the history and myth of Greek
and non-Greek cultures. He became the measure against which generals,
even to this day, compare themselves, and military academies
throughout the world still teach his tactical exploits.iii[›]
Early life
Lineage and childhood
"The night before the consummation of their marriage, she dreamed that
a thunderbolt fell upon her body, which kindled a great fire, whose
divided flames dispersed themselves all about, and then were
extinguished. And Philip, some time after he was married, dreamed that
he sealed up his wife's body with a seal, whose impression, as he
fancied, was the figure of a lion. Some of the diviners interpreted
this as a warning to Philip to look narrowly to his wife; but
Aristander of Telmessus, considering how unusual it was to seal up
anything that was empty, assured him the meaning of his dream was that
the queen was with child of a boy, who would one day prove as stout
and courageous as a lion."
Plutarch describing Olympias and Philip's dreams.[2]Alexander was born
on 20 (or 21) July 356 BC,[3][4] in Pella, the capital of the Kingdom
of Macedon. He was the son of Philip II, the King of Macedon. His
mother was Philip's fourth wife Olympias, the daughter of Neoptolemus
I, the king of the northern Greek state of Epirus.[2][5][6][7]
Although Philip had either seven or eight wives, Olympias was his
principal wife for a time.
As a member of the Argead dynasty, Alexander claimed patrilineal
descent from Heracles through Caranus of Macedon.v[›] From his
mother's side and the Aeacids, he claimed descent from Neoptolemus,
son of Achilles;vi[›] Alexander was a second cousin of the celebrated
general Pyrrhus of Epirus, who was ranked by Hannibal as, depending on
the source, either the best[8] or second-best (after Alexander)[9]
commander the world had ever seen.
According to the ancient Greek historian Plutarch, Olympias, on the
eve of the consummation of her marriage to Philip, dreamed that her
womb was struck by a thunder bolt, causing a flame that spread "far
and wide" before dying away. Some time after the wedding, Philip was
said to have seen himself, in a dream, sealing up his wife's womb with
a seal upon which was engraved the image of a lion.[2] Plutarch offers
a variety of interpretations of these dreams: that Olympia was
pregnant before her marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb; or
that Alexander's father was Zeus. Ancient commentators were divided as
to whether the ambitious Olympias promulgated the story of Alexander's
divine parentage, some claiming she told Alexander, others that she
dismissed the suggestion as impious.[2]
On the day that Alexander was born, Philip was preparing himself for
his siege on the city of Potidea on the peninsula of Chalkidiki. On
the same day, Philip received news that his general Parmenion had
defeated the combined Illyrian and Paeonian armies, and that his
horses had won at the Olympic Games. It was also said that on this
day, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus—one of the Seven Wonders of the
World—burnt down, leading Hegesias of Magnesia to say that it burnt
down because Artemis was attending the birth of Alexander.[3][6][10]
Alexander fighting an Asiatic lion with his friend Craterus (detail).
3rd century BC mosaic, Pella Museum.In his early years, Alexander was
raised by his nurse, Lanike, the sister of Alexander's future friend
and general Cleitus the Black. Later on in his childhood, Alexander
was tutored by the strict Leonidas, a relative of his mother, and by
Lysimachus.[11][12]
When Alexander was ten years old, a horse trader from Thessaly brought
Philip a horse, which he offered to sell for thirteen talents. The
horse refused to be mounted by anyone, and Philip ordered it to be
taken away. Alexander, however, detected the horse's fear of his own
shadow and asked for a turn to tame the horse, which he eventually
managed. According to Plutarch, Philip, overjoyed at this display of
courage and ambition, kissed him tearfully, declaring: "My boy, you
must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too
small for you", and bought the horse for him.[13] Alexander would name
the horse Bucephalus, meaning 'ox-head'. Bucephalus would be
Alexander's companion throughout his journeys as far as India. When
Bucephalus died (due to old age, according to Plutarch, for he was
already thirty), Alexander named a city after him (Bucephala).[14][15]
[16]
Adolescence and education
Aristotle tutoring Alexander.When Alexander was thirteen years old,
Philip decided that Alexander needed a higher education, and he began
to search for a tutor. Many people were passed over including
Isocrates and Speusippus, Plato's successor at the Academy, who
offered to resign to take up the post. In the end, Philip offered the
job to Aristotle, who accepted, and Philip gave them the Temple of the
Nymphs at Mieza as their classroom. In return for teaching Alexander,
Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle's hometown of Stageira, which
Philip had razed, and to repopulate it by buying and freeing the ex-
citizens who were slaves, or pardoning those who were in exile.[17][18]
[19][20]
Mieza was like a boarding school for Alexander and the children of
Macedonian nobles, such as Ptolemy, Hephaistion, and Cassander. Many
of the pupils who learned by Alexander's side would become his friends
and future generals, and are often referred to as the 'Companions'. At
Mieza, Aristotle educated Alexander and his companions in medicine,
philosophy, morals, religion, logic, and art. From Aristotle's
teaching, Alexander developed a passion for the works of Homer, and in
particular the Iliad; Aristotle gave him an annotated copy, which
Alexander was to take on his campaigns.[21][22][23][24]
Philip's heir
Regency and ascent of Macedon
Main articles: Philip II of Macedon and Rise of Macedon
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rise_of_Macedon
A bust depicting Philip II of Macedon, Alexander's fatherWhen
Alexander became sixteen years old, his tutorship under Aristotle came
to an end. Philip, the king, departed to wage war against Byzantium,
and Alexander was left in charge as regent of the kingdom. During
Philip's absence, the Thracian Maedi revolted against Macedonian rule.
Alexander responded quickly; he crushed the Maedi insurgence, driving
them from their territory, colonised it with Greeks, and founded a
city named Alexandropolis.[25][26][27][28]
After Philip's return from Byzantium, he dispatched Alexander with a
small force to subdue certain revolts in southern Thrace. During
another campaign against the Greek city of Perinthus, Alexander is
reported to have saved his father's life. Meanwhile, the city of
Amphissa began to work lands that were sacred to Apollo near Delphi, a
sacrilege that gave Philip the opportunity to further intervene in the
affairs of Greece. Still occupied in Thrace, Philip ordered Alexander
to begin mustering an army for a campaign in Greece. Concerned with
the possibility of other Greek states intervening, Alexander made it
look as if he were preparing to attack Illyria instead. During this
turmoil, the Illyrians took the opportunity to invade Macedonia, but
Alexander repelled the invaders.[29]
Philip joined Alexander with his army in 338 BC, and they marched
south through Thermopylae, which they took after a stubborn resistance
from its Theban garrison. They went on to occupy the city of Elatea, a
few days march from both Athens and Thebes. Meanwhile, the Athenians,
led by Demosthenes, voted to seek an alliance with Thebes in the war
against Macedonia. Both Athens and Philip sent embassies to try to win
Thebes's favour, with the Athenians eventually succeeding.[30][31][32]
Philip marched on Amphissa (theoretically acting on the request of the
Amphicytonic League), captured the mercenaries sent there by
Demosthenes, and accepted the city's surrender. Philip then returned
to Elatea and sent a final offer of peace to Athens and Thebes, which
was rejected.[33][34][35]
Statue of Alexander in Istanbul Archaeology Museum.As Philip marched
south, he was blocked near Chaeronea, Boeotia by the forces of Athens
and Thebes. During the ensuing Battle of Chaeronea, Philip commanded
the right, and Alexander the left wing, accompanied by a group of
Philip's trusted generals. According to the ancient sources, the two
sides fought bitterly for a long time. Philip deliberately commanded
the troops on his right wing to backstep, counting on the untested
Athenian hoplites to follow, thus breaking their line. On the left,
Alexander was the first to break into the Theban lines, followed by
Philip's generals. Having achieved a breach in the enemy's cohesion,
Philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed his
enemy. With the rout of the Athenians, the Thebans were left to fight
alone; surrounded by the victorious enemy, they were crushed.[36]
After the victory at Chaeronea, Philip and Alexander marched unopposed
into the Peloponnese welcomed by all cities; however, when they
reached Sparta, they were refused, and they simply left.[37] At
Corinth, Philip established a "Hellenic Alliance" (modeled on the old
anti-Persian alliance of the Greco-Persian Wars), with the exception
of Sparta. Philip was then named Hegemon (often translated as 'Supreme
Commander') of this league (known by modern historians as the League
of Corinth). He then announced his plans for a war of revenge against
the Persian Empire, which he would command.[38][39]
Exile and return
"At the wedding of Cleopatra, whom Philip fell in love with and
married, she being much too young for him, her uncle Attalus in his
drink desired the Macedonians would implore the gods to give them a
lawful successor to the kingdom by his niece. This so irritated
Alexander, that throwing one of the cups at his head, "You villain,"
said he, "what, am I then a bastard?" Then Philip, taking Attalus's
part, rose up and would have run his son through; but by good fortune
for them both, either his over-hasty rage, or the wine he had drunk,
made his foot slip, so that he fell down on the floor. At which
Alexander reproachfully insulted over him: "See there," said he, "the
man who makes preparations to pass out of Europe into Asia, overturned
in passing from one seat to another."
— Plutarch, describing the feud at Philip's wedding.[25]After
returning to Pella, Philip fell in love with and married Cleopatra
Eurydice, the niece of one of his generals, Attalus. This marriage
made Alexander's position as heir to the throne less secure, since if
Cleopatra Eurydice bore Philip a son, there would be a fully
Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only half Macedonian.[40] During
the wedding banquet, a drunken Attalus made a speech praying to the
gods that the union would produce a legitimate heir to the Macedonian
throne. Alexander shouted to Attalus, "What am I then, a bastard?" and
he threw his goblet at him. Philip, who was also drunk, drew his sword
and advanced towards Alexander before collapsing, leading Alexander to
say, "See there, the man who makes preparations to pass out of Europe
into Asia, overturned in passing from one seat to another."[25]
Alexander fled from Macedon taking his mother with him, whom he
dropped off with her brother in Dodona, capital of Epirus. He carried
on to Illyria, where he sought refuge with the Illyrian King and was
treated as a guest by the Illyrians, despite having defeated them in
battle a few years before. Alexander returned to Macedon after six
months in exile due to the efforts of a family friend, Demaratus the
Corinthian, who mediated between the two parties.[25][41][42]
The following year, the Persian satrap (governor) of Caria, Pixodarus,
offered the hand of his eldest daughter to Alexander's half-brother,
Philip Arrhidaeus. Olympias and several of Alexander's friends
suggested to Alexander that this move showed that Philip intended to
make Arrhidaeus his heir. Alexander reacted by sending an actor,
Thessalus of Corinth, to tell Pixodarus that he should not offer his
daughter's hand to an illegitimate son, but instead to Alexander. When
Philip heard of this, he scolded Alexander for wishing to marry the
daughter of a Carian. Philip had four of Alexander's friends,
Harpalus, Nearchus, Ptolemy and Erigyius exiled, and had the
Corinthians bring Thessalus to him in chains.[40][43][44]
King of Macedon
Accession
The Kingdom of Macedon in 336 BCIn 336 BC, whilst at Aegae, attending
the wedding of his daughter by Olympias, Cleopatra, to Olympias's
brother, Alexander I of Epirus, Philip was assassinated by the captain
of his bodyguard, Pausanias.vii[›] As Pausanias tried to escape, he
tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers, including two of
Alexander's companions, Perdiccas and Leonnatus. Alexander was
proclaimed king by the Macedonian army and by the Macedonian noblemen
at the age of 20.[45][46][47]
Power consolidation
Alexander began his reign by having his potential rivals to the throne
murdered. He had his cousin, the former Amyntas IV, executed, as well
as having two Macedonian princes from the region of Lyncestis killed,
while a third, Alexander Lyncestes, was spared. Olympias had Cleopatra
Eurydice and her daughter by Philip, Europa, burned alive. When
Alexander found out about this, he was furious with his mother.
Alexander also ordered the murder of Attalus, who was in command of
the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor. Attalus was at the time
in correspondence with Demosthenes, regarding the possibility of
defecting to Athens. Regardless of whether Attalus actually intended
to defect, he had already severely insulted Alexander, and having just
had Attalus's daughter and grandchildren murdered, Alexander probably
felt Attalus was too dangerous to leave alive.[48] Alexander spared
the life of Arrhidaeus, who was by all accounts mentally disabled,
possibly as a result of poisoning by Olympias.[45][49][50][51]
News of Philip's death roused many states into revolt, including
Thebes, Athens, Thessaly, and the Thracian tribes to the north of
Macedon. When news of the revolts in Greece reached Alexander, he
responded quickly. Though his advisors advised him to use diplomacy,
Alexander mustered the Macedonian cavalry of 3,000 men and rode south
towards Thessaly, Macedon's neighbor to the south. When he found the
Thessalian army occupying the pass between Mount Olympus and Mount
Ossa, he had the men ride over Mount Ossa. When the Thessalians awoke
the next day, they found Alexander in their rear, and promptly
surrendered, adding their cavalry to Alexander's force, as he rode
down towards the Peloponnesus.[52][53][54][55]
Alexander stopped at Thermopylae, where he was recognized as the
leader of the Amphictyonic League before heading south to Corinth.
Athens sued for peace and Alexander received the envoy and pardoned
anyone involved with the uprising. At Corinth, he was given the title
Hegemon, and like Philip, appointed commander of the forthcoming war
against Persia. While at Corinth, he heard the news of the Thracian
rising to the north.[53][56]
Balkan campaign
Alexander's Balkan campaign
Mount Haemus – Pelium – Thebes
Main article: Alexander's Balkan campaign
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%27s_Balkan_campaign
Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern
borders; and, in the spring of 335 BC, he advanced to suppress several
apparent revolts. Starting from Amphipolis, he first went east into
the country of the "Independent Thracians"; and at Mount Haemus, the
Macedonian army attacked and defeated a Thracian army manning the
heights.[57] The Macedonians marched on into the country of the
Triballi, and proceeded to defeat the Triballian army near the Lyginus
river [58] (a tributary of the Danube). Alexander then advanced for
three days on to the Danube, encountering the Getae tribe on the
opposite shore. Surprising the Getae by crossing the river at night,
he forced the Getae army to retreat after the first cavalry skirmish,
leaving their town to the Macedonian army.[59][60] News then reached
Alexander that Cleitus, King of Illyria, and King Glaukias of the
Taulanti were in open revolt against Macedonian authority. Marching
west into Illyria, Alexander defeated each in turn, forcing Cleitus
and Glaukias to flee with their armies, leaving Alexander's northern
frontier secure.[61][62]
While he was triumphantly campaigning north, the Thebans and Athenians
rebelled once more. Alexander reacted immediately, but, while the
other cities once again hesitated, Thebes decided to resist with the
utmost vigor. However, the resistance was useless, as the city was
razed to the ground amid great bloodshed, and its territory was
divided between the other Boeotian cities. The end of Thebes cowed
Athens into submission, leaving all of Greece at least outwardly at
peace with Alexander.[63]
Conquest of the Persian Empire
Alexander's
Persian campaigns
Granicus (334 BC) – Miletus (334 BC) – Halicarnassus (334 BC) – Issus
(333 BC) – Tyre (332 BC) – Gaza (332 BC) – Gaugamela (331 BC) –
Persian Gate (330 BC) – Sogdian Rock (327 BC)
Main articles: Wars of Alexander the Great and Chronology of the
expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_the_expedition_of_Alexander_the_Great_into_Asia
Asia Minor
Main articles: Battle of the Granicus, Siege of Halicarnassus, and
Siege of Miletus
Map of Alexander's empire and the paths he tookAlexander's army
crossed the Hellespont in 334 BC with approximately 42,000 soldiers
from Macedon and various Greek city-states, mercenaries, and feudally
raised soldiers from Thrace, Paionia, and Illyria.[64] After an
initial victory against Persian forces at the Battle of the Granicus,
Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and
treasury of Sardis and proceeded down the Ionian coast.[65] At
Halicarnassus, Alexander successfully waged the first of many sieges,
eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain Memnon of
Rhodes and the Persian satrap of Caria, Orontobates, to withdraw by
sea.[66] Alexander left the government of Caria to Ada, who adopted
Alexander as her son.[67]
From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous Lycia and the
Pamphylian plain, asserting control over all coastal cities. He did
this to deny the Persians naval bases. Since Alexander had no reliable
fleet of his own, defeating the Persian fleet required land control.
[68] From Pamphylia onward, the coast held no major ports and so
Alexander moved inland. At Termessos, Alexander humbled but did not
storm the Pisidian city.[69] At the ancient Phrygian capital of
Gordium, Alexander 'undid' the hitherto unsolvable Gordian Knot, a
feat said to await the future "king of Asia".[70] According to the
most vivid story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the
knot was undone, and he hacked it apart with his sword.[71]
The Levant and Syria
Main articles: Battle of Issus and Siege of Tyre
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Issus
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Tyre
Alexander Mosaic, showing Battle of Issus, from the House of the Faun,
PompeiiAfter spending the winter campaigning in Asia Minor,
Alexander's army crossed the Cilician Gates in 333 BC, and defeated
the main Persian army under the command of Darius III at the Battle of
Issus in November.[72] Darius was forced to flee the battle after his
army broke, and in doing so left behind his wife, his two daughters,
his mother Sisygambis, and a fabulous amount of treasure.[73] He
afterward offered a peace treaty to Alexander, the concession of the
lands he had already conquered, and a ransom of 10,000 talents for his
family. Alexander replied that since he was now king of Asia, it was
he alone who decided territorial divisions.[74]
Alexander proceeded to take possession of Syria, and most of the coast
of the Levant.[75] However, the following year, 332 BC, he was forced
to attack Tyre, which he eventually captured after a famous siege.[76]
[77] After the capture of Tyre, Alexander crucified all the men of
military age, and sold the women and children into slavery.[78]
Egypt
Main article: Siege of Gaza
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Gaza
Egyptian alabaster statuette of Alexander the Great in the Brooklyn
MuseumWhen Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the route to
Egypt quickly capitulated, with the exception of Gaza. The stronghold
at Gaza was built on a hill and was heavily fortified.[79] At the
beginning of the Siege of Gaza, Alexander utilized the engines he had
employed against Tyre. After three unsuccessful assaults, the
stronghold was finally taken by force, but not before Alexander
received a serious shoulder wound. When Gaza was taken, the male
population was put to the sword and the women and children were sold
into slavery.[80]
Jerusalem, on the other hand, opened its gates in surrender, and
according to Josephus, Alexander was shown the book of Daniel's
prophecy, presumably chapter 8, where a mighty Greek king would subdue
and conquer the Persian Empire. Thereupon, Alexander spared Jerusalem
and pushed south into Egypt.[81][82]
Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC, where he was regarded as
a liberator.[83] He was pronounced the new "master of the Universe"
and son of the deity of Amun at the Oracle of Siwa Oasis in the Libyan
desert.[84] Henceforth, Alexander often referred to Zeus-Ammon as his
true father, and subsequent currency depicted him adorned with ram
horns as a symbol of his divinity.[85][86] During his stay in Egypt,
he founded Alexandria-by-Egypt, which would become the prosperous
capital of the Ptolemaic kingdom after his death.[87]
Assyria and Babylonia
Main article: Battle of Gaugamela
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela
Initial dispositions and opening movements in the Battle of Gaugamela,
331 BC.Leaving Egypt in 331 BC, Alexander marched eastward into
Mesopotamia (now northern Iraq) and defeated Darius once more at the
Battle of Gaugamela.[88] Once again, Darius was forced to leave the
field, and Alexander chased him as far as Arbela. Darius fled over the
mountains to Ecbatana (modern Hamedan), but Alexander instead marched
to and captured Babylon.[89]
Persia
Main article: Battle of the Persian Gate
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Persian_Gate
From Babylon, Alexander went to Susa, one of the Achaemenid capitals,
and captured its legendary treasury.[89] Sending the bulk of his army
to the Persian ceremonial capital of Persepolis via the Royal Road,
Alexander himself took selected troops on the direct route to the
city. However, the pass of the Persian Gates (in the modern Zagros
Mountains) had been blocked by a Persian army under Ariobarzanes, and
Alexander had to storm the pass. Alexander then made a dash for
Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury.[90] At
Persepolis, Alexander stared at the crumbled statue of Xerxes and
decided to leave it on the ground.[91][92] During their stay at the
capital, a fire broke out in the eastern palace of Xerxes and spread
to the rest of the city. Theories abound as to whether this was the
result of a drunken accident, or a deliberate act of revenge for the
burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the Second Persian War.[92]
Fall of the Empire and the East
Alexander then set off in pursuit of Darius again, first into Media,
and then Parthia.[93] The Persian king was no longer in control of his
destiny, having been taken prisoner by Bessus, his Bactrian satrap and
kinsman.[94] As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab
the Great King and then declared himself Darius' successor as
Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia to launch a
guerrilla campaign against Alexander.[95] Darius' remains were buried
by Alexander next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a full regal
funeral.[96] Alexander claimed that, while dying, Darius had named him
as his successor to the Achaemenid throne.[97] The Achaemenid Empire
is normally considered to have fallen with the death of Darius.[98]
Silver coin of Alexander, British MuseumAlexander, now considering
himself the legitimate successor to Darius, viewed Bessus as a usurper
to the Achaemenid throne, and set out to defeat him. This campaign,
initially against Bessus, turned into a grand tour of central Asia,
with Alexander founding a series of new cities, all called Alexandria,
including modern Kandahar in Afghanistan, and Alexandria Eschate ("The
Furthest") in modern Tajikistan. The campaign took Alexander through
Media, Parthia, Aria (West Afghanistan), Drangiana, Arachosia (South
and Central Afghanistan), Bactria (North and Central Afghanistan), and
Scythia.[99]
Bessus was betrayed in 329 BC by Spitamenes, who held an undefined
position in the satrapy of Sogdiana. Spitamenes handed over Bessus to
Ptolemy, one of Alexander's trusted companions, and Bessus was
executed.[100] However, when, at some point later, Alexander was on
the Jaxartes, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander launched
a campaign and defeated him in the Battle of Gabai; after the defeat,
Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace.[101]
Problems and plots
During this time, Alexander took the Persian title "King of
Kings" (Shahanshah) and adopted some elements of Persian dress and
customs at his court, notably the custom of proskynesis, either a
symbolic kissing of the hand, or prostration on the ground, that
Persians paid to their social superiors.[102][103] The Greeks regarded
the gesture as the province of deities and believed that Alexander
meant to deify himself by requiring it. This cost him much in the
sympathies of many of his countrymen.[103] A plot against his life was
revealed, and one of his officers, Philotas, was executed for failing
to bring the plot to his attention. The death of the son necessitated
the death of the father, and thus Parmenion, who had been charged with
guarding the treasury at Ecbatana, was assassinated by command of
Alexander, so he might not make attempts at vengeance. Most
infamously, Alexander personally slew the man who had saved his life
at Granicus, Cleitus the Black, during a drunken argument at Maracanda.
[104] Later, in the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his
life was revealed, this one instigated by his own royal pages. His
official historian, Callisthenes of Olynthus (who had fallen out of
favor with the king by leading the opposition to his attempt to
introduce proskynesis), was implicated in the plot; however, there has
never been consensus among historians regarding his involvement in the
conspiracy.[105]
Indian campaign
Alexander's Indian campaign
Massaga – Ora – Aornos – Hydaspes – Malli
Main article: Alexander's Indian campaign
Invasion of the Indian subcontinent
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%27s_Indian_campaign
After the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to Roxana (Roshanak in
Bactrian) to cement his relations with his new Central Asian
satrapies, Alexander was finally free to turn his attention to the
Indian subcontinent. Alexander invited all the chieftains of the
former satrapy of Gandhara, in the north of what is now Pakistan, to
come to him and submit to his authority. Omphis (whose actual name is
Ambhi), ruler of Taxila, whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the
Hydaspes, complied, but the chieftains of some hill clans, including
the Aspasioi and Assakenoi sections of the Kambojas (known in Indian
texts also as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas), refused to submit.[106]
A painting by Charles Le Brun depicting Alexander and Porus (Puru)
during the Battle of the HydaspesIn the winter of 327/326 BC,
Alexander personally led a campaign against these clans; the Aspasioi
of Kunar valleys, the Guraeans of the Guraeus valley, and the
Assakenoi of the Swat and Buner valleys.[107] A fierce contest ensued
with the Aspasioi in which Alexander himself was wounded in the
shoulder by a dart but eventually the Aspasioi lost the fight.
Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought bravely and offered
stubborn resistance to Alexander in the strongholds of Massaga, Ora
and Aornos.[106] The fort of Massaga could only be reduced after
several days of bloody fighting in which Alexander himself was wounded
seriously in the ankle. According to Curtius, "Not only did Alexander
slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its
buildings to rubbles".[108] A similar slaughter then followed at Ora,
another stronghold of the Assakenoi. In the aftermath of Massaga and
Ora, numerous Assakenians fled to the fortress of Aornos. Alexander
followed close behind their heels and captured the strategic hill-fort
after the fourth day of a bloody fight.[106]
After Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus and fought and won an epic
battle against a local ruler Porus, who ruled a region in the Punjab,
in the Battle of Hydaspes in 326 BC.[109] Alexander was greatly
impressed by Porus for his bravery in battle, and therefore made an
alliance with him and appointed him as satrap of his own kingdom, even
adding land he did not own before. Additional reasons were probably
political since, to control lands so distant from Greece required
local assistance and co-operation.[110] Alexander named one of the two
new cities that he founded, Bucephala, in honor of the horse that had
brought him to India, and had died during the battle.[111]
Revolt of the army
Campaigns and landmarks of Alexander's invasion of the Indian
subcontinent.East of Porus' kingdom, near the Ganges River, was the
powerful Nanda Empire of Magadha and Gangaridai Empire of Bengal.
Fearing the prospects of facing other powerful Indian armies and
exhausted by years of campaigning, his army mutinied at the Hyphasis
River, refusing to march further east. This river thus marks the
easternmost extent of Alexander's conquests.[112][113]
As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted
their courage and stayed their further advance into India. For having
had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty
thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed
Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the
width of which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs, its depth a
hundred fathoms, while its banks on the further side were covered with
multitudes of men-at-arms and horsemen and elephants. For they were
told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them
with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight
thousand chariots, and six thousand war elephants.[112]
Alexander spoke to his army and tried to persuade them to march
further into India but Coenus pleaded with him to change his opinion
and return, the men, he said, "longed to again see their parents,
their wives and children, their homeland". Alexander, seeing the
unwillingness of his men, eventually agreed and turned south. Along
the way his army conquered the Malli clans (in modern day Multan), and
other Indian tribes.[114]
Return
Alexander sent much of his army to Carmania (modern southern Iran)
with his general Craterus, and commissioned a fleet to explore the
Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus, while he led the rest
of his forces back to Persia through the more difficult southern route
along the Gedrosian Desert and Makran (now part of southern Iran and
Pakistan).[115]
Last years in Persia
Discovering that many of his satraps and military governors had
misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed a number of them as
examples, on his way to Susa.[116][117] As a gesture of thanks, he
paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send
those over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedon under Craterus.
But, his troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town
of Opis, refusing to be sent away and bitterly criticizing his
adoption of Persian customs and dress, and the introduction of Persian
officers and soldiers into Macedonian units.[118] Alexander executed
the ringleaders of the mutiny, but forgave the rank and file.[119] In
an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his Macedonian and
Persian subjects, he held a mass marriage of his senior officers to
Persian and other noblewomen at Susa, but few of those marriages seem
to have lasted much beyond a year.[117] Meanwhile, upon his return,
Alexander learned some men had desecrated the tomb of Cyrus the Great,
and swiftly executed them, because they were put in charge of guarding
the tomb Alexander held in honor.[120]
After Alexander traveled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the
Persian treasure, his closest friend and possibly lover[121]
Hephaestion died of an illness, or possibly of poisoning.[122]
According to Plutarch, Alexander, distraught over the death of his
longtime companion, sacked a nearby town, and put all of its
inhabitants to the sword, as a sacrifice to Hephaestion's ghost.[123]
Arrian finds great diversity and casts doubts on the accounts of
Alexander's displays of grief, although he says that they all agree
that Hephaestion's death devastated him, and that he ordered the
preparation of an expensive funeral pyre in Babylon, as well as a
decree for the observance of a public mourning.[122]
Back in Babylon, Alexander planned a series of new campaigns,
beginning with an invasion of Arabia, but he would not have a chance
to realize them.[124]
Death and succession
Final days
An Astronomical diary (c. 323–322 BC) recording the death of Alexander
(British Museum, London)On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander died
in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II, in Babylon at the age of 32.[125]
Plutarch gives a lengthy account of the circumstances of his death,
echoed (without firm dates) by Arrian. Roughly 14 days before his
death, Alexander entertained his admiral Nearchus, and then, instead
of going to bed, spent the night and next day drinking with Medius of
Larissa.[126] After this, and by 18 Daesius (a Macedonian month) he
had developed a fever, which then grew steadily worse.[126][127] By 25
Daesius, he was unable to speak.[127] By 26 Daesius, the common
soldiers had become anxious about his health, or thought he was
already dead. They demanded to see him, and Alexander's generals
acquiesced.[127] The soldiers slowly filed past him, whilst Alexander
raised his right hand in greeting, still unable to speak.[128] Two
days later, on 28 Daesius (although Aristobolus's account says it was
30 Daesius), Alexander was dead.[126][127] Conversely, Diodorus
recounts that Alexander was struck down with pain after downing a
large bowl of unmixed wine in honour of Hercules, and (rather
mysteriously) died after some agony,[129] which is also mentioned as
an alternative by Arrian, but Plutarch specifically refutes this claim.
[126]
Possible causes
Poison
Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination,
[130] it is scarcely surprising that allegations of foul play have
been made about the death of Alexander. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and
Justin all mention the theory that Alexander was poisoned. Plutarch
dismisses it as a fabrication,[49] but both Diodorus and Arrian say
that they only mention it for the sake of completeness.[129][131] The
accounts are nevertheless fairly consistent in designating Antipater,
recently removed from the position of Macedonian viceroy, and at odds
with Olympias, as the head of the alleged plot. Perhaps taking his
summons to Babylon as a death sentence in waiting,[132] and having
seen the fate of Parmenion and Philotas,[133] Antipater arranged for
Alexander to be poisoned by his son Iollas, who was Alexander's wine-
pourer.[49][131][133] There is even a suggestion that Aristotle may
have had a hand in the plot.[49][131] Conversely, the strongest
argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days had
passed between the start of his illness and his death; in the ancient
world, such long-acting poisons were probably not available.[134]
Natural causes
Several natural causes (diseases) have been suggested as the cause of
Alexander's death; malaria or typhoid fever are obvious candidates. A
1998 article in the New England Journal of Medicine attributed his
death to typhoid fever complicated by bowel perforation and ascending
paralysis,[135] whereas another recent analysis has suggested
pyrogenic spondylitis or meningitis as the cause.[136] Other illnesses
could have also been the culprit, including acute pancreatitis or the
West Nile virus.[137][138] Natural-cause theories also tend to
emphasise that Alexander's health may have been in general decline
after years of heavy drinking and his suffering severe wounds
(including one in India that nearly claimed his life). Furthermore,
the anguish that Alexander felt after Hephaestion's death may have
contributed to his declining health.[135]
The most probable cause of Alexanders death is however, the result of
overdosing on medicine made from Hellebore, deadly in large doses. The
very few things we do know about his death, can today be explained
only with accidental hellebore-poisoning.[139][140]
Fate after death
Detail of Alexander on the Alexander SarcophagusAlexander's body was
placed in a gold anthropoid sarcophagus, which was in turn placed in a
second gold casket.[141] According to Aelian, a seer called Aristander
foretold that the land where Alexander was laid to rest "would be
happy and unvanquishable forever".[142] Perhaps more likely, the
successors may have seen possession of the body as a symbol of
legitimacy (it was a royal prerogative to bury the previous king).
[143] At any rate, Ptolemy stole the funeral cortege, and took it to
Memphis.[141][142] His successor, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, transferred
the sarcophagus to Alexandria, where it remained until at least Late
Antiquity. Ptolemy IX Lathyros, one of the last successors of Ptolemy
I, replaced Alexander's sarcophagus with a glass one so he could melt
the original down for issues of his coinage.[144] Pompey, Julius
Caesar and Augustus all visited the tomb in Alexandria, the latter
allegedly accidentally knocking the nose off the body. Caligula was
said to have taken Alexander's breastplate from the tomb for his own
use. In c. AD 200, Emperor Septimius Severus closed Alexander's tomb
to the public. His son and successor, Caracalla, was a great admirer
of Alexander, and visited the tomb in his own reign. After this,
details on the fate of the tomb are sketchy.[144]
The so-called "Alexander Sarcophagus", discovered near Sidon and now
in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, is so named not because it was
thought to have contained Alexander's remains, but because its bas-
reliefs depict Alexander and his companions hunting and in battle with
the Persians. It was originally thought to have been the sarcophagus
of Abdalonymus (died 311 BC), the king of Sidon appointed by Alexander
immediately following the battle of Issus in 331.[145][146][147]
However, more recently, it has been suggested that it may date from
earlier than Abdalonymus' death.[148]
Division of the Empire
Main article: Diadochi
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diadochi
Bust of Seleucus I Nicator, who succeeded to Alexander's eastern
conquestsAlexander had no obvious or legitimate heir, his son
Alexander IV by Roxane being born after Alexander's death. This left
the huge question as to who would rule the newly conquered, and barely
pacified Empire.[149] According to Diodorus, Alexander's companions
asked him when he was on his deathbed to whom he bequeathed his
kingdom; his laconic reply was "tôi kratistôi"—"to the strongest".
[129] Given that Arrian and Plutarch have Alexander speechless by this
point, it is possible that this is an apocryphal story.[150] Diodorus,
Curtius and Justin also have the more plausible story of Alexander
passing his signet ring to Perdiccas, one of his bodyguard and leader
of the companion cavalry, in front of witnesses, thereby possibly
nominating Perdiccas as his successor.[129][149]
In any event, Perdiccas initially avoided explicitly claiming power,
instead suggesting that Roxane's baby would be king, if male; with
himself, Craterus, Leonnatus and Antipater as guardians. However, the
infantry, under the command of Meleager, rejected this arrangement
since they had been excluded from the discussion. Instead, they
supported Alexander's half-brother Philip Arrhidaeus. Eventually, the
two sides reconciled, and after the birth of Alexander IV, he and
Philip III were appointed joint kings of the Empire—albeit in name
only.[151]
It was not long, however, before dissension and rivalry began to
afflict the Macedonians. The satrapies handed out by Perdiccas at the
Partition of Babylon became power bases each general could use to
launch his own bid for power. After the assassination of Perdiccas in
321 BC, all semblance of Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40 years of
war between "The Successors" (Diadochi) ensued before the Hellenistic
world settled into four stable power blocks: the Ptolemaic kingdom of
Egypt, the Seleucid Empire in the east, the Kingdom of Pergamon in
Asia Minor, and Macedon. In the process, both Alexander IV and Philip
III were murdered.[152]
Testament
Diodorus relates that Alexander had given detailed written
instructions to Craterus some time before his death.[153] Although
Craterus had already started to carry out some of Alexander's
commands, the successors chose not to further implement them, on the
grounds they were impractical and extravagant.[153] The testament
called for military expansion into the southern and western
Mediterranean, monumental constructions, and the intermixing of
Eastern and Western populations. Its most remarkable items were:
Construction of a monumental pyre to Hephaestion, costing 10,000
talents
Construction of a monumental tomb for his father Philip, "to match the
greatest of the pyramids of Egypt"
Erection of great temples in Delos, Delphi, Dodona, Dium, Amphipolis,
Cyrnus, and Ilium
Building of "a thousand warships, larger than triremes, in Phoenicia,
Syria, Cilicia, and Cyprus for the campaign against the Carthaginians
and the others who live along the coast of Libya and Iberia and the
adjoining coastal regions as far as Sicily"
Building of a road in northern Africa as far as the Pillars of
Heracles, with ports and shipyards along it
Establishment of cities and the "transplant of populations from Asia
to Europe and in the opposite direction from Europe to Asia, in order
to bring the largest continent to common unity and to friendship by
means of intermarriage and family ties."[132][153]
Character
Physical appearance
Roman copy of a statue by Lysippus, Louvre Museum. According to
Plutarch, sculptures by Lysippus were the most faithful.Green provides
a description of Alexander's appearance, based on ancient sources:
Physically, Alexander was not prepossessing. Even by Macedonian
standards he was very short, though stocky and tough. His beard was
scanty, and he stood out against his hirsute Macedonian barons by
going clean-shaven. His neck was in some way twisted, so that he
appeared to be gazing upward at an angle. His eyes (one blue, one
brown) revealed a dewy, feminine quality. He had a high complexion and
a harsh voice.[154]
Many descriptions and statues portray Alexander with the
aforementioned gaze looking upward and outward. Both his father Philip
II and his brother Philip Arrhidaeus also suffered from physical
deformities, which had led to the suggestion that Alexander suffered
from a congenital scoliotic disorder (familial neck and spinal
deformity). Furthermore, it has been suggested that this may have
contributed to his death.[136]
During his last years, sculptor Lysippus sculpted an image of
Alexander. Lysippus had captured in the stone Alexander's appearance
characteristics; slightly left-turned neck and peculiar gaze.
Lysippus' sculpture, which is opposite to his often vigorous
portrayal, especially in coinage of the time, is thought to be the
most faithful depiction of Alexander.[155]
Personality
Alexander's personality is well described by the ancient sources. Some
of his strongest personality traits formed in response to his parents.
[154] His mother had huge ambitions for Alexander, and encouraged him
to believe it was his destiny to conquer the Persian Empire.[154]
Indeed, Olympias may have gone to the extent of poisoning Philip
Arrhidaeus so as to disable him, and prevent him being a rival for
Alexander.[49] Olympias's influence instilled huge ambition and a
sense of destiny in Alexander,[156] and Plutarch tells us that his
ambition "kept his spirit serious and lofty in advance of his years".
[157] Alexander's relationship with his father generated the
competitive side of his personality; he had a need to out-do his
father, as his reckless nature in battle suggests.[154] While
Alexander worried that his father would leave him "no great or
brilliant achievement to be displayed to the world",[12] he still
attempted to downplay his father's achievements to his companions.
[154]
Alexander's most evident personality traits were his violent temper
and rash, impulsive nature,[157][158] which undoubtedly contributed to
some of his decisions during his life.[154] Plutarch thought that this
part of his personality was the cause of his weakness for alcohol.
[157] Although Alexander was stubborn and did not respond well to
orders from his father, he was easier to persuade by reasoned debate.
[17] Indeed, set beside his fiery temperament, there was a calmer side
to Alexander; perceptive, logical, and calculating. He had a great
desire for knowledge, a love for philosophy, and was an avid reader.
[22] This was no doubt in part due to his tutelage by Aristotle;
Alexander was intelligent and quick to learn.[17][154] The tale of his
"solving" the Gordian knot neatly demonstrates this. He had great self-
restraint in "pleasures of the body", contrasting with his lack of
self control with alcohol.[157][159] The intelligent and rational side
to Alexander is also amply demonstrated by his ability and success as
a general.[158]
Alexander was undoubtedly erudite, and was a patron to both the arts
and sciences.[22][157] However, he had little interest in sports, or
the Olympic games (unlike his father), seeking only the Homeric ideals
of glory and fame.[156][157] He had great charisma and force of
personality, characteristics, which made him a great leader.[149][158]
This is further emphasised by the inability of any of his generals to
unite the Macedonians and retain the Empire after his death – only
Alexander had the personality to do so.[149]
Megalomania
During his final years, and especially after the death of Hephaestion,
Alexander began to exhibit signs of megalomania and paranoia.[132] His
extraordinary achievements, coupled with his own ineffable sense of
destiny and the flattery of his companions, may have combined to
produce this effect.[160] His delusions of grandeur are readily
visible in the testament that he ordered Craterus to fulfil, and in
his desire to conquer all non-Greek peoples.[132]
He seems to have come to believe himself a deity, or at least sought
to deify himself.[132] Olympias always insisted to him that he was the
son of Zeus,[3] a theory apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of
Amun at Siwa.[85] He began to identify himself as the son of Zeus-
Ammon.[85] Alexander adopted some elements of Persian dress and
customs at his court, notably the custom of proskynesis, a practice of
which the Macedonians disapproved, and were loathe to perform.[102]
[103] Such behaviour cost him much in the sympathies of many of his
countrymen.[103]
Personal relationships
Main article: Personal relationships of Alexander the Great
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_relationships_of_Alexander_the_Great
A mural in Pompeii, depicting the marriage of Alexander to Barsine
(Stateira) in 324 BC. The couple are apparently dressed as Ares and
Aphrodite.The greatest emotional relationship of Alexander's life was
with his friend, general, and bodyguard Hephaestion, the son of a
Macedonian noble.[122][154][161] Hephaestion's death devastated
Alexander, sending him into a period of grieving.[122][123] This event
may have contributed to Alexander's failing health, and detached
mental state during his final months.[132][135] Alexander married
twice: Roxana, daughter of a Bactrian nobleman, Oxyartes, out of love;
[162] and Stateira, a Persian princess and daughter of Darius III of
Persia out of political interest.[163] He apparently had two sons,
Alexander IV of Macedon of Roxana and, possibly, Heracles of Macedon
from his mistress Barsine; and lost another child when Roxana
miscarried at Babylon.[164][165]
Alexander's sexuality has been the subject of speculation and
controversy.[166] Nowhere in the ancient sources is it stated that
Alexander had homosexual relationships, or that Alexander's
relationship with Hephaestion was sexual. Aelian, however, writes of
Alexander's visit to Troy where "Alexander garlanded the tomb of
Achilles and Hephaestion that of Patroclus, the latter riddling that
he was a beloved of Alexander, in just the same way as Patroclus was
of Achilles".[121] Noting that the word eromenos (ancient Greek for
beloved) does not necessarily bear sexual meaning, Alexander may
indeed have been bisexual, which in his time was not controversial.
[167][168]
Green argues that there is little evidence in the ancient sources
Alexander had much interest in women, particularly since he did not
produce an heir until the very end of his life.[154] However, he was
relatively young when he died, and Ogden suggests that Alexander's
matrimonial record is more impressive than his father's at the same
age.[169] Apart from wives, Alexander had many more female companions.
Alexander had accumulated a harem in the style of Persian kings but he
used it rather sparingly;[170] showing great self-control in
"pleasures of the body".[159] It is possible that Alexander was simply
not a highly sexed person. Nevertheless, Plutarch describes how
Alexander was infatuated by Roxanne while complimenting him on not
forcing himself on her.[171] Green suggests that, in the context of
the period, Alexander formed quite strong friendships with women,
including Ada of Caria, who adopted Alexander, and even Darius's
mother Sisygambis, who supposedly died from grief when Alexander died.
[154]
Legacy
Hellenistic Kingdoms
Main article: Hellenistic Period
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_Period
The Hellenistic world view after Alexander: ancient world map of
Eratosthenes (276–194 BC), incorporating information from the
campaigns of Alexander and his successors.[172]Alexander's most
obvious legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new
swathes of Asia. Many of these areas would remain in Macedonian hands,
or under Greek influence for the next 200–300 years. The successor
states that emerged were, at least initially, dominant forces during
this epoch, and these 300 years are often referred to as the
Hellenistic Period.[173]
The eastern borders of Alexander's empire began to collapse even
during his lifetime.[149] However, the power vacuum he left in the
northwest of the Indian subcontinent directly gave rise to one of the
most powerful Indian dynasties in history. Taking advantage of the
neglect shown to this region by the successors, Chandragupta Maurya
(referred to in European sources as Sandrokotto), of relatively humble
origin, took control of the Punjab, and then with that power base
proceeded to conquer the Nanda Empire of northern India.[174] In 305
BC, Seleucus, one of the successors, marched to India to reclaim the
territory; instead, he ceded the area to Chandragupta in return for
500 war elephants. These in turn played a pivotal role in the Battle
of Ipsus, the result of which did much to settle the division of the
Empire.[174]
Hellenization
Main article: Hellenistic civilization
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization
Hellenization is a term coined by the German historian Johann Gustav
Droysen to denote the spread of Greek language, culture, and
population into the former Persian empire after Alexander's conquest.
[173] That this export took place is undoubted, and can be seen in the
great Hellenistic cities of, for instance, Alexandria (one of around
twenty towns founded by Alexander[175]), Antioch[176] and Seleucia
(south of modern Baghdad).[177] However, exactly how widespread and
deeply permeating this was, and to what extent it was a deliberate
policy, is debatable. Alexander certainly made deliberate efforts to
insert Greek elements into Persian culture and in some instances he
attempted to hybridize Greek and Persian culture, culminating in his
aspiration to homogenise the populations of Asia and Europe. However,
the successors explicitly rejected such policies after his death.
Nevertheless, Hellenization occurred throughout the region, and
moreover, was accompanied by a distinct and opposite 'Orientalization'
of the Successor states.[176][178]
Coin of Alexander bearing an Aramaic language inscriptionThe core of
Hellenistic culture was essentially Athenian by origin.[176][179] The
Athenian koine dialect had been adopted long before Philip II for
official use and was thus spread throughout the Hellenistic world,
becoming the lingua franca through Alexander's conquests. Furthermore,
town planning, education, local government, and art current in the
Hellenistic period were all based on Classical Greek ideals, evolving
though into distinct new forms commonly grouped as Hellenistic.[176]
Aspects of the Hellenistic culture were still evident in the
traditions of the Byzantine Empire up until the mid-15th century.[180]
[181]
Two Kalash women in Hindu Kush. Historians still argue over the
legitimacy of the Kalash's claim that they are the direct descendants
of Greek settlers.[182]Some of the most unusual effects of
Hellenization can be seen in India, in the region of the relatively
late-arising Indo-Greek kingdoms.[183] There, isolated from Europe,
Greek culture apparently hybridised with Indian, and especially
Buddhist, influences. The first realistic portrayals of the Buddha
appeared at this time; they are modelled on Greek statues of Apollo.
[183] Several Buddhist traditions may have been influenced by the
ancient Greek religion: the concept of Boddhisatvas is reminiscent of
Greek divine heroes,[184] and some Mahayana ceremonial practices
(burning incense, gifts of flowers, and food placed on altars) are
similar to those practiced by the ancient Greeks. Zen Buddhism draws
in part on the ideas of Greek stoics, such as Zeno.[185] One Greek
king, Menander I, probably became Buddhist, and is immortalized in
Buddhist literature as 'Milinda'.[183]
Influence on Rome
Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans who wanted to
associate themselves with his achievements. Polybius started his
Histories by reminding Romans of his role, and thereafter subsequent
Roman leaders saw him as his inspirational role model. Julius Caesar
reportedly wept in Spain at the sight of Alexander's statue, because
he thought he had achieved so little by the same age that Alexander
had conquered the world.[186] Pompey the Great searched the conquered
lands of the east for Alexander's 260-year-old cloak, which he then
wore as a sign of greatness. In his zeal to honor Alexander, Augustus
accidentally broke the nose off the Macedonian's mummified corpse
while laying a wreath at the Alexander's tomb Alexandria. The
Macriani, a Roman family that in the person of Macrinus briefly
ascended to the imperial throne, kept images of Alexander on their
persons, either on jewelry, or embroidered into their clothes.[187]
In the summer of 1995, a statue of Alexander was recovered in an
excavation of a Roman house in Alexandria, which was richly decorated
with mosaic and marble pavements and probably was constructed in the
1st century AD and occupied until the 3rd century.[188]
Legend
Main articles: Alexander the Great in legend and Alexander Romance
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great_in_legend
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Romance
There are many legendary accounts surrounding the life of Alexander
the Great, with a relatively large number deriving from his own
lifetime, probably encouraged by Alexander himself. His court
historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea in Cilicia as drawing back
from him in proskynesis. Writing shortly after Alexander's death,
another participant, Onesicritus, went so far as to invent a tryst
between Alexander and Thalestris, queen of the mythical Amazons. When
Onesicritus read this passage to his patron, Alexander's general and
later King Lysimachus reportedly quipped, "I wonder where I was at the
time."[189]
In the first centuries after Alexander's death, probably in
Alexandria, a quantity of the more legendary material coalesced into a
text known as the Alexander Romance, later falsely ascribed to the
historian Callisthenes and therefore known as Pseudo-Callisthenes.
This text underwent numerous expansions and revisions throughout
Antiquity and the Middle Ages.[190]
The Alexander legend is also believed to extend to Alexander the Great
in the Qur'an, where he appears as a man called Dhul-Qarnayn.[191]
In ancient and modern culture
Main article: Cultural depictions of Alexander the Great
Alexander the Great's accomplishments and legacy have been preserved
and depicted in many ways. Alexander has figured in works of both high
and popular culture from his own era to the modern day.
In Punjab, the land of his final conquest, the name "Secunder" is
commonly given to children even today. This is both due to respect and
admiration for Alexander and also as a memento to the fact that
fighting the people of Punjab fatigued his army to the point that they
revolted against him.
A common proverb in the Punjab, reads jit jit key jung, secunder jay
haar, translation, "alexander wins so many battles that he loses the
war" used to address anyone who is good at winning but never taking
advantage of those wins.[citation needed]
Sources
Main article: Historical Alexander the Great
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_Alexander_the_Great
Texts written by people who actually knew Alexander or who gathered
information from men who served with Alexander are all lost apart from
a few inscriptions and fragments. Contemporaries who wrote accounts of
his life include Alexander's campaign historian Callisthenes;
Alexander's generals Ptolemy and Nearchus; Aristobulus, a junior
officer on the campaigns; and Onesicritus, Alexander's chief helmsman.
These works have been lost, but later works based on these original
sources survive. The five main surviving accounts are by Arrian,
Curtius, Plutarch, Diodorus, and Justin.[192]
Ancestry
Ancestors of Alexander the Great
4. Amyntas III of Macedon
2. Philip II of Macedon
20. Arrhabaeus
10. ??
5. Eurydice I of Macedon
1. Alexander the Great
24. Tharrhypas
12. Alcetas I of Epirus
6. Neoptolemus I of Epirus
3. Olympias
See also
Chronology of European exploration of Asia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_European_exploration_of_Asia
Notes
^ i: See for instance[193][194][195][196][197][198][199][200][201][202]
[203][204][205][206][207][208][209][210][211] andv[›]vi[›].
^ ii: By the time of his death, he had conquered the entire
Achaemenid Persian Empire, adding it to Macedon's European
territories; according to some modern writers, this was most of the
world then known to the ancient Greeks (the 'Ecumene').[212][213] An
approximate view of the world known to Alexander can be seen in
Hecataeus of Miletus's map, see File:Hecataeus world map-en.svg.
^ iii: For instance, Hannibal supposedly ranked Alexander as the
greatest general;[214] Julius Caesar wept on seeing a statue of
Alexander, since he had achieved so little by the same age;[186]
Pompey consciously posed as the 'new Alexander';[215] the young
Napoleon Bonaparte also encouraged comparisons with Alexander.[216]
^ iv: The name Αλέξανδρος derives from the Greek words αλέξω (to
defend, protect) and ανήρ (man; genitive case ανδρός), and means
"protector of men."[217]
^ v: "In the early 5th century the royal house of Macedon, the
Temenidae was recognised as Greek by the Presidents of the Olympic
Games. Their verdict was and is decisive. It is certain that the Kings
considered themselves to be of Greek descent from Heracles son of
Zeus."[193]
^ vi: "AEACIDS Descendants of Aeacus, son of Zeus and the nymph
Aegina, eponymous (see the term) to the island of that name. His son
was Peleus, father of Achilles, whose descendants (real or supposed)
called themselves Aeacids: thus Pyrrhus and Alexander the Great."[194]
^ vii: There have been, since the time, many suspicions that
Paunsanias was actually hired to murder Philip. Suspicion has fallen
upon Alexander, Olympias and even the newly crowned Persian Emperor,
Darius III. All three of these people had motive to have Philip
murdered.[218]
References
Notes
^ Yenne, W. Alexander the Great: Lessons from History's Undefeated
General. Palmgrave McMillan, 2010. 244 p.
^ a b c d Plutarch, Alexander, 2
^ a b c Plutarch, Alexander, 3
^ Alexander was born on the 6 of the month Hekatombaion "The birth of
Alexander at Livius.org".
http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_t32.html#7.
^ McCarty, p. 10.
^ a b Renault, p. 28.
^ Durant, Life of Greece, p. 538.
^ Plutarch. "Life of Pyrrhus". Penelope.uchicago.edu.
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Pyrrhus*.html.
Retrieved 14 November 2009.
^ Appian, History of the Syrian Wars, §10 and §11 at Livius.org
^ Bose, p. 21.
^ Renault, pp. 33–34.
^ a b Plutarch, Alexander, 5
^ Plutarch, Alexander, 6
^ Fox, The Search For Alexander, p. 64.
^ Renault, p. 39.
^ Durant, p. 538.
^ a b c Plutarch, Alexander, 7
^ Fox, The Search For Alexander, p. 65.
^ Renault, p. 44.
^ McCarty, p. 15.
^ Fox, The Search For Alexander, pp. 65–66.
^ a b c Plutarch, Alexander, 8
^ Renault, pp. 45–47.
^ McCarty, Alexander the Great, p. 16.
^ a b c d Plutarch, Alexander, 9
^ Fox, The Search For Alexander, p. 68.
^ Renault, p. 47.
^ Bose, p. 43.
^ Renault, pp. 47–49.
^ Renault, pp. 50–51.
^ Bose, pp. 44–45
^ McCarty, p. 23
^ Renault, p. 51.
^ Bose, p. 47.
^ McCarty, p. 24.
^ Diodorus Siculus, Library XVI, 86
^ "History of Ancient Sparta". Sikyon.com.
http://www.sikyon.com/sparta/history_eg.html. Retrieved 14 November
2009.
^ Renault, p. 54.
^ McCarty, p. 26.
^ a b McCarty, p. 27.
^ Bose, p. 75.
^ Renault, p. 56
^ Renault, p. 59.
^ Fox, The Search For Alexander, p. 71.
^ a b McCarty, pp. 30–31.
^ Renault, pp. 61–62.
^ Fox, The Search For Alexander, p. 72.
^ Green, Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age, pp5–6
^ a b c d e Plutarch, Alexander, 77
^ Renault, pp. 70–71.
^ Fox, p. 72.
^ McCarty, p. 31.
^ a b Renault, p. 72.
^ Fox, The Search For Alexander, p. 104.
^ Bose, p. 95.
^ Bose, p. 96.
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri I, 1
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri I, 2
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri I, 3–4
^ Renault, pp. 73–74.
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri I, 5–6
^ Renault, p. 77.
^ Plutarch, Phocion, 17
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri I, 11
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri I, 13–19
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri I, 20–23
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri I, 23
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri I, 20, 24–26
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri I, 27–28
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri II, 3
^ Greene, p. 351
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri II, 6–10
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri II, 11–12
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri I, 3–4 II, 14
^ Arrian Anabasis Alexandri II, 23
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri II, 16–24
^ Gunther, p. 84.
^ Sabin et al., p. 396.
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri II, 26
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri II, 26–27
^ Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, XI, 337 [viii, 5]
^ Insight on the Scriptures, Volume 1, 1988, Watch Tower Bible and
Tract Society of Pennsylvania International Bible Students
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^ Ring et al. pp. 49, 320.
^ Grimal, p. 382.
^ a b c Plutarch, Alexander, 27
^ "Coin: from the Persian Wars to Alexander the Great, 490–336 bc".
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^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri III, 1
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri III 7–15
^ a b Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri III, 16
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri III, 18
^ Plutarch, Alexander, 37
^ a b Hammond, N. G. L. (1983). Sources for Alexander the Great.
Cambridge University Press. pp. 72–73. ISBN 9780521714716.
http://books.google.com/books?id=gay_i14p9oEC&pg=PA72&lpg=PA72&dq=%22statue+of+Xerxes%22+alexander&source=bl&ots=JajY84CQZ0&sig=nZnldACxC58Z4Clch7cdlK4PHEY&hl=en&ei=px0BS8ydFcqJkQXbqNSADA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=&f=false.
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri III, 19–20
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri III, 21
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri III, 21, 25
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri III, 22
^ Gergel, p. 81.
^ "The end of Persia". www.livius.org. http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander10.html.
Retrieved 2009-11-16.
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri III, 23–25, 27–30; IV, 1–7
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri III, 30
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri IV, 5–6, 16–17
^ a b Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri VII, 11
^ a b c d Plutarch, Alexander, 45
^ Gergel, p. 99.
^ Waldemar Heckel, Lawrence A. Tritle, ed (2009). Alexander the Great:
A New History. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 47–48. ISBN 9781405130820.
http://books.google.com/books?id=jbaPwpvt8ZQC&pg=PA46&lpg=PA46&dq=callisthenes+of+olynthus+conspiracy&source=bl&ots=OuEJ0-CcWq&sig=QBgIAlj9TnGaolkmvaRbMDzuktg&hl=en&ei=X_QBS6uLBI-XkQWt-qiEDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CAsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=callisthenes%20of%20olynthus%20conspiracy&f=false.
^ a b c Tripathi. History of Ancient India. pp. 118–121.
http://books.google.com/books?id=WbrcVcT-GbUC.
^ Narain, pp. 155–165
^ Curtius in McCrindle, Op cit, p 192, J. W. McCrindle; History of
Punjab, Vol I, 1997, p 229, Punajbi University, Patiala, (Editors):
Fauja Singh, L. M. Joshi; Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 134,
Kirpal Singh.
^ Tripathi. History of Ancient India. pp. 124–125.
http://books.google.com/books?id=WbrcVcT-GbUC.
^ Tripathi. History of Ancient India. pp. 126–127.
http://books.google.com/books?id=WbrcVcT-GbUC.
^ Gergel, p. 120.
^ a b Plutarch, Alexander, 62
^ Tripathi. History of Ancient India. pp. 129–130.
http://books.google.com/books?id=WbrcVcT-GbUC.
^ Tripathi. History of Ancient India. pp. 137–138.
http://books.google.com/books?id=WbrcVcT-GbUC&pg=PA134&dq=Malloi++Alexander&sig=Xvc-CeaQxzHb6-MqkbsZ_EhAeHM#PPA138,M1.
^ Tripathi. History of Ancient India. p. 141. http://books.google.com/books?id=WbrcVcT-GbUC.
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri VI, 27
^ a b Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri VII, 4
^ Worthington, Alexander the Great, pp. 307–308
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri VII, 8
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri VI, 29
^ a b Aelian, Varia Historia XII, 7
^ a b c d Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri VII, 14
^ a b Plutarch, Alexander, 72
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri VII, 19
^ Depuydt L. "The Time of Death of Alexander the Great: 11 June 323
BC, ca. 4:00-5:00 PM". Die Welt des Orients 28: 117–135.
^ a b c d Plutarch, Alexander, 75
^ a b c d Plutarch, Alexander, 76
^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri VII, 26
^ a b c d Diodorus Siculus Library XVII, 117
^ Green, Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age, pp. 1–2.
^ a b c Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri VII, 27
^ a b c d e f Green, Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age, pp.
23–24.
^ a b Diodorus Siculus Library XVII, 118
^ Fox, Alexander the Great, p.
^ a b c Oldach DW, Richard RE, Borza EN, Benitez RM (June 1998). "A
mysterious death". N. Engl. J. Med. 338 (24): 1764–1769. doi:10.1056/
NEJM199806113382411. PMID 9625631.
http://content.nejm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=short&pmid=9625631&promo=ONFLNS19.
^ a b Ashrafian, H (2004). "The death of Alexander the Great—a spinal
twist of fate". J Hist Neurosci 13 (2): 138–142. doi:
10.1080/0964704049052157. PMID 15370319.
^ "Alexander the Great and West Nile Virus Encephalitis". Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention.
http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol9no12/03-0288.htm. Retrieved 20 May
2008.
^ Sbarounis CN (2007). "Did Alexander the Great die of acute
pancreatitis?". J Clin Gastroenterol 24 (4): 294–296. doi:
10.1097/00004836-199706000-00031. PMID 9252868.
^ Cawthorne (2004), s. 138
^ "Forensic Psychiatry & Medicine - Dead Men Talking". Forensic-
psych.com.
http://www.forensic-psych.com/articles/artDeadMenTalking.php.
Retrieved 18 July 2009.
^ a b "HEC". Greece.org. http://www.greece.org/alexandria/alexander/pages/location.html.
Retrieved 18 July 2009.
^ a b Aelian, Varia Historia XII, 64
^ Green, Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age, p. 32.
^ a b "HEC". Greece.org. http://www.greece.org/alexandria/alexander/pages/aftermath.html.
Retrieved 18 July 2009.
^ Studniczka pp. 226ff.
^ Beazley and Ashmole, p. 59, fig. 134.
^ Bieber M (1965). "The Portraits of Alexander". Greece & Rome, Second
Series 12.2: 183–188.
^ See Alexander Sarcophagus.
^ a b c d e Green, Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age, pp. 24–
26.
^ Green, Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age, p. 20.
^ Green, Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age, pp. 26–29.
^ Green, Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age, pp. 29–45.
^ a b c Diodorus Siculus, Library XVIII, 4
^ a b c d e f g h i j Green, Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic
Age, pp. 15–16.
^ Boswroth p.19-20
^ a b Green, Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age, p. 4.
^ a b c d e f Plutarch, Alexander, 4
^ a b c Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri VII, 29
^ a b Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri VII, 28
^ Green, Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age, pp20–21
^ Diodorus Siculus Library XVII, 114
^ Plutarch, Alexander, 47
^ Plutarch, On the Fortune and Virtue of Alexander, Or2.6
^ "Alexander IV". livius.org.
http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander01/alexander_iv.html. Retrieved
13 December 2009.
^ Renault, p. 100.
^ Ogden, p. 204.
^ Sacks et al, p. 16.
^ Worthington, p. 159.
^ Ogden, Alexander the Great - A new history p. 208. "three attested
pregnancies in eight years produces an attested impregnation rate of
one every 2.7 years, which is actually superior to that of his
father's.
^ Diodorus Siculus, Library XVII, 77
^ Plutarch, On the Fortune and Virtue of Alexander I, 11
^ "Source". Henry-davis.com.
http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancient%20Web%20Pages/112.html.
Retrieved 22 March 2009.
^ a b Green, Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age, pp. xii–
xix.
^ a b Keay, pp. 82–85.
^ "Alexander the Great: his towns". livius.org.
http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_z2.html. Retrieved 13
December 2009.
^ a b c d Green, Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age, pp. 56–
59.
^ "Seleucia on the Tigris, Iraq", University of Michigan.
^ Green, Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age, p. 21.
^ Murphy, p. 17.
^ Gabriel, Richard A. (2002). "The army of Byzantium". The Great
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^ Baynes, Norman G. (2007). "Byzantine art". Byzantium: An
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^ Kalash spring festival, Greek influence, BBC News
^ a b c Keay, pp. 101–109.
^ Luniya, p. 312.
^ Pratt, p. 237.
^ a b Plutarch, Caesar, 11
^ Holt, p. 3.
^ "Salima Ikram. Nile Currents". Egyptology.com.
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2009.
^ Plutarch, Alexander, 46
^ Stoneman, Richard (2008). Alexander the Great: A Life in Legend.
Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11203-0.
^ Two Horns, Three Religions. How Alexander the Great ended up in the
Quran, Rebecca Edwards, Papers on the Ancient Novel and associated
topics presented at the annual meeting of the American Philological
Association, 3–6 January 2002 (abstract, review)
^ Green, Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age, pp. xxii–
xxviii.
^ a b Hammond, N.G.L. A History of Greece to 323 BC. Cambridge
University, 1986, p. 516.
^ a b Chamoux, François and Roussel, Michel. Hellenistic Civilization.
Blackwell Publishing, 2003, p. 396, ISBN 0631222421.
^ Pomeroy et al.
^ Hammond, pp. 12–13.
^ A. R. Burn, Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Empire,
Macmillan, 1948
^ George Cawkwell, Philip of Macedon, Faber & Faber, London, 1978
^ Francois Chamoux, Hellenistic Civilization, Blackwell Publishing
Professional, 2002
^ Victor Ehrenberg, The Greek State, Methuen, 2000
^ Malcolm Errington, A History of Macedonia, University of California
Press, February 1993
^ John V.A. Fine, The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History, Harvard
University Press, 1983
^ Robin Lane Fox, Alexander the Great
^ Jonathan M. Hall, Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity, Cambridge
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^ N G L Hammond, A History of Greece to 323 BC, Cambridge University,
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^ Archer Jones, The Art of War in Western World, University of
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^ Robin Osborne, Greek History, Routledge, 2004
^ Chester G. Starr, A History of the Ancient World, Oxford University
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^ Arnold J. Toynbee, The Greeks and Their Heritages, Oxford University
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^ Ulrich Wilcken, Alexander the Great
^ Ian Worthington, Alexander the Great, Routledge, 2002.
^ Danforth, pp38, 49, 167
^ Stoneman, p2
^ Goldsworthy, pp. 327–328.
^ Holland, pp. 176–183.
^ Barnett, p. 45.
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ISBN 9781405801621.
External links
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article
Alexander III.
http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Alexander_III
Alexander the Great at the Open Directory Project
http://www.dmoz.org/Society/History/By_Time_Period/Ancient/Greece/People/Alexander_the_Great//
Alexander the Great: An annotated list of primary sources from
Livius.org
http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_z1b.html
A Bibliography of Alexander the Great by Waldemar Heckel
http://hum.ucalgary.ca/wheckel/bibl/alex-bibl.pdf
Alexander the Great
Argead dynasty
Born: 356 BC Died: 323 BC
Preceded by
Philip II King of Macedon
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon
Preceded by
Darius III
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darius_III
336–323 BC
Succeeded by
Philip III & Alexander IV
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_III_of_Macedon
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon
Preceded by
Darius III Great King (Shah) of Persia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Persia#Hellenistic_rulers
330–323 BC
Pharaoh of Egypt
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pharaohs#Argead_Dynasty
332–323 BC
Preceded by
New Title
King of Asia
331–323 BC
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great
...and I am Sid Harth